Article
Illustration by Gary Hanna

The Great Stink

In 1858, London had a big, smelly problem: its largest river was overflowing with poop.

By Allison Friedman
From the May/June 2020 Issue

Learning Objective: Students will synthesize information from two articles to draw a conclusion: The need for safe sanitation has sparked inventions for dealing with human waste. 

Lexile: 800L-900L, 600L-700L
Guided Reading Level: U
DRA Level: 50

Story Navigation

As You Read: Synthesizing

As you read these articles, think about how big problems can spark the creation of new inventions. 

The Great Stink 

In 1858, London was caught in the grip of a horrifying health crisis: Its largest river was overflowing with poop.

Let’s journey to the city of London, England, in the summer of 1858. Horse-drawn carriages clip-clop through the streets. Ladies wearing giant, tentlike skirts glide past shop windows. Kids stand on street corners, selling newspapers and cigars and fried fish.

But you don’t notice any of that. All you can think about is the overpowering, stomach-turning, eye-watering smell of poop.

As you will soon discover, the entire city is caught in the grip of a stinky crisis. For years, Londoners have been dumping human waste into the Thames [TEMZ], the great river that rushes through the city. Now, London is suffering the hottest summer in recent history. The steaming heat is cooking the filthy river into a bubbling, foul-smelling stew. Newspapers are calling this crisis “the Great Stink.” 

The problem isn’t merely gross. It’s also deadly. Over the past 50 years, tens of thousands of people have died from drinking the polluted water of the River Thames. Can the Great Stink force the city to clean up the Thames before thousands more are sickened?

Let’s journey to the city of London, England. It’s the summer of 1858. Horse-drawn carriages clip-clop through the streets. Ladies in tent-like skirts glide past shop windows. Kids sell newspapers, cigars, and fried fish on the street.

But you don’t notice any of that. All you can think about is the smell. The overpowering, stomach-turning, eye-watering smell of poop.

The entire city is caught in the grip of a stinky crisis. For years, Londoners have been dumping human waste into the Thames [temz] River, which runs through the city. Now, London is suffering the hottest summer in recent history. The steaming heat is cooking the filthy river into a bubbling, foul-smelling stew. Newspapers call this “The Great Stink.”

The problem isn’t merely gross. It’s also deadly. Over the past 50 years, tens of thousands of people have died from drinking the Thames River’s polluted water. Can the Great Stink force the city to clean it up before thousands more are sickened?

The Problem of Poop

For as long as humans have walked the earth, figuring out what to do with human waste has been one of our greatest challenges. In ancient South Asian cities, clay pipes and brick channels carried waste away from homes. An intricate web of stone sewers lay underneath the ancient city of Rome to take waste out of the city.

Until the early 1800s, London’s system for dealing with waste was fairly simple. Most homes had a bathroom. People did their business on a wooden box with a hole that sat above an underground pit called a cesspool. These cesspools were usually 6 feet deep and 4 feet wide. When they were full, a “night soil man” would shovel out the waste and sell it to farmers to use as fertilizer. (Poop was known as night soil because it was carted away in the middle of the night, when the powerful odor wouldn’t disturb people.)

But in the 19th century, London—and all of England—was changing. Thousands were leaving their farms to work at factories in cities. Between 1800 and 1850, London’s population more than doubled. By the middle of the century, London was the biggest city in the world, with 2 million people.

Soon there was too much night soil to collect and not enough farmers to buy it. More and more people were forced to empty their cesspools into the city’s creaky old sewers. The sewers, however, were never designed for human waste—they were built to drain rainwater into the Thames to prevent flooding. 

To make matters worse, a dazzling new invention was becoming increasingly popular: the flush toilet. Waste could now be magically washed away with the pull of a chain. But because toilets used a lot of water, they caused the cesspools to overflow. To avoid a goopy mess, people began connecting their toilets directly to the sewers—and therefore to the river. 

Overloaded with human waste, the Thames grew thick, brown, and foul. Over time, the smell became a stench, and the stench became a reek. And then, in the scorching summer of 1858, it became a crisis.

Dealing with human waste has always been a big challenge. Ancient South Asian cities used clay pipes and brick pathways to carry waste away from homes. Ancient Rome used an intricate system of stone sewers. They took waste out of the city.

Until the early 1800s, London had a simple waste system. Most homes had a bathroom. People did their private business on a wooden box with a hole. It sat above an underground pit called a cesspool. These cesspools were usually 6 feet deep and 4 feet wide. When full, a “night soil man” would shovel out the waste. Then he would sell it to farmers. They used the night soil as fertilizer. (Poop was called night soil because it was carted away in the middle of the night. That way the powerful odor wouldn’t disturb people.)

But in the 19th century, London— and all of England—was changing. Thousands were leaving their farms. They went to work at factories in cities. Between 1800 and 1850, London’s population more than doubled. By the middle of the century, 2 million people lived in London. It was the biggest city in the world.

Soon, there was too much night soil to cart away. And there were not enough farmers to buy it. More people had to empty their cesspools into the city’s creaky old sewers. But the sewers were never meant for human waste. They were built to prevent flooding by carrying rainwater into the Thames.

A dazzling new invention was making things worse. It was called the flush toilet. Waste could now be washed away with the pull of a chain. But toilets used a lot of water. They caused the cesspools to overflow. To avoid a goopy mess, people began connecting their toilets directly to the sewers. Now all that smelly waste would go right into the river.

The Thames became overloaded with human waste. It grew thick, brown, and foul. Over time, the gross smell became a sickening stench. Then the stench became unbearable. In the scorching summer of 1858, it became a crisis.

Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

A River of Death

This cartoon drawn during the Great Stink captures the public’s fear of cholera. It depicts the Thames as the River Styx. In Greek mythology, the Styx divided the world of the living from the world of the dead.

A Whiff on the Wind

Londoners back then were no strangers to filth. Soot from factories blackened the air. Mountains of dung from thousands of horses choked the streets. Families crammed into tiny apartments thick with the smell of sweat. And everywhere was garbage: broken dishes, rotting food, animal bones.

Still, the Great Stink of 1858 was an odor more putrid than the city had ever experienced. Londoners fainted in the streets. People miles away threw up after catching a whiff on the wind. Government leaders, who worked in a building beside the Thames, were seen fleeing with tears streaming from their eyes.

Londoners weren’t just disgusted by the stink—they were terrified. At the time, it was widely believed that diseases spread through miasma: dirty, smelly air. And the most feared disease of all? Cholera, a violent stomach sickness that could kill a person within 24 hours. London had already suffered three major cholera epidemics. More than 30,000 people had died. Londoners worried that the Great Stink would unleash a new wave of death across the city.

What few people in 1858 understood was that it wasn’t the smell of the river that was deadly; it was the water. Poop is crawling with germs that can cause dozens of diseases, including cholera. The poop-filled Thames was London’s main source of drinking water. People had essentially been gulping down poison.

Londoners back then were no strangers to filth. Soot from factories blackened the air. Mountains of horse dung choked the streets. Families crammed into tiny apartments thick with the smell of sweat. And everywhere there was garbage: broken dishes, moldy food, animal bones.

Still, the Great Stink of 1858 was an odor more putrid than the city had ever experienced. Grown men and women fainted in the streets. People miles away threw up after breathing in the smell, which was carried by the wind. Government leaders worked in a building beside the Thames. They ran away with tears streaming from their eyes.

Londoners weren’t just disgusted by the stink. They were terrified. Back then, people believed that dirty, smelly air spread disease. And the most feared disease of all? Cholera [KAH-ler-uh], a violent stomach sickness that could kill a person within 24 hours. London had already suffered three major cholera epidemics. More than 30,000 people had died. Londoners worried that the Great Stink would unleash a new wave of death across the city.

Few people in 1858 understood that the smell wasn’t deadly. It was the water. Poop is filled with microscopic germs. They can cause dozens of diseases, including cholera. The poop-filled Thames was London’s main source of drinking water. People had been gulping down poison.

Something Had to Be Done

SSPL via Getty Images 

Even if government leaders didn’t understand exactly why the Great Stink was dangerous, they knew something had to be done—fast. With handkerchiefs pressed to their noses, they quickly passed a law mandating the construction of a new sewer system. The sewers would run underground alongside the river rather than into it, carrying waste out of the city and away from where people lived.

It took thousands of workers, 318 million bricks, 670,000 cubic meters of concrete, and what would be $6 billion in today’s money to construct London’s new sewer system. The system officially opened in 1865.

Soon, the Thames was poop-free once again.

Government leaders didn’t understand exactly why the Great Stink was dangerous. Still, they knew something had to be done— fast. Covering their noses, they quickly ordered the construction of a new sewer system. The new sewers would be underground. Waste would be carried past the city, away from where people lived.

The new sewer system was expensive. Building it cost what would be $6 billion in today’s money. It took thousands of workers, 318 million bricks, and 670,000 cubic meters of concrete. The system officially opened in 1865.

Soon, the Thames was poop-free once again.

Otto Herschan Collection/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

A Dazzling Wonder

When London’s new sewer system opened in 1865, it was considered a technological marvel. It was designed to prevent human waste from flowing into the River Thames.

A New Crisis

London’s new sewer system inspired similar projects in cities around the world, including in U.S. cities like New York. Many parts of those systems are still being used today, more than a century later. Over the years, however, these antique sewers have started to fall apart. Since the 1800s, many city populations have continued to multiply. Climate change is triggering heavier storms that overload pipes with rainwater. 

Under these pressures, the original sewers—once a dazzling modern wonder—have begun to leak, break, clog, and overflow. In some places, waste has been oozing into the drinking water supply.

Many experts say we may be approaching a new sewage crisis. If we don’t take action, we could soon be holding our noses through the Great Stink Part 2

London’s new sewer system inspired others. Similar projects appeared around the world, like in New York City. A century later, parts of those systems are still being used. Over the years, however, these antique sewers have started to fall apart. Since the 1800s, cities have continued to grow. Climate change has triggered heavier rainstorms. These storms overload pipes with rainwater.

The original sewers were once an amazing achievement. Now, decades later, they have begun to leak, break, clog, and overflow. In some places, waste has been oozing into the drinking water supply.

Many experts say we are nearing a sewage crisis. We need to do something. Otherwise, we could soon be holding our noses through the Great Stink Part 2.

Mirrorpix/Newscom

Sewer Monsters

This hunk of yuck is called a fatberg. Fatbergs are a problem in cities with older sewer systems. When cooking oil and grease are poured down the drain, they end up in sewers, where they harden into fat. These sticky blobs trap up all kinds of stuff: baby wipes, cotton balls, food scraps- stuff that should be recycled or placed in the trash, not flushed. If a fatberg gets big enough, it clogs pipes and causes sewage to overflow.

Toilets of the Future 

These toilets could help solve one of the world’s most serious problems: how to safely get rid of human waste.

Here in the U.S., most of us probably don’t think much about toilets. We go, we flush, we wash our hands. But what if your home didn’t have a toilet? What if no homes in your town had one? Where would all that waste go? Before long, there would be a crisis, just like there was in London 162 years ago.

Today, 4.5 billion people around the world do not have a way to get rid of human waste without harming people or the environment. It ends up in food and water sources. Many thousands of people die every year from diseases related to unsafe sanitation. Millions more are sickened.

This problem mainly affects developing countries, which tend to have high poverty. Building more toilets and sewers might seem like a simple solution. But sewer systems require a lot of money to build and water to operate. Many developing countries don’t have enough of either.

The U.S. faces sanitation challenges too. Some aging sewers are crumbling from the strain of too many people using them.

Could one of these innovative waterless toilets be the solution to today’s sanitation challenges?

Here in the U.S., most of us probably don’t think much about toilets. We go, we flush, we wash our hands. But what if your home didn’t have a toilet? What if no homes in your town had one? Where would all that waste go? Before long, there would be a crisis, just like in London 162 years ago.

Today, 4.5 billion people cannot get rid of human waste without harming people or the environment. It ends up in food and water sources. Many thousands of people die every year from diseases related to unsafe sanitation. Millions more are sickened.

This problem mainly affects developing countries. They tend to have high poverty. Building more toilets and sewers seems like a simple solution. But sewer systems require a lot of money and water. Many developing countries don’t have enough of either.

The U.S. faces sanitation challenges too. Some aging sewers are crumbling from the strain of too many people using them.

These innovative toilets do not use water. Could one be the solution to today’s sanitation challenges?

Shutterstock.com

Self-Powering Toilet

The Nano Membrane toilet gets rid of waste by burning it. When you close the lid, waste drops into a pan. From there, liquid waste—aka urine—is filtered into clean water that can be used for watering plants but not for drinking. Any solid waste—aka poop—is burned into ash. The best part? The whole process produces enough electricity to power the toilet, as well as other, small devices like, say, your smartphone.

Self-Powering Toilet

The Nano Membrane toilet gets rid of waste by burning it. When you close the lid, waste drops into a pan. From there, liquid waste—aka urine—is filtered into clean water that can be used for watering plants but not for drinking. Any solid waste—aka poop—is burned into ash. The best part? The whole process produces enough electricity to power the toilet, as well as other, small devices like, say, your smartphone.

Work Toilet

The Tiger Toilet breaks down waste with worms. Beneath the toilet, and out of view from users, lives a cluster of tiger worms. These critters eat organic waste—including poop. As the worms digest waste, harmful germs are removed. In the end, all that’s left is a mix of water, carbon dioxide, and some harmless worm poop that can be used as fertilizer.

Work Toilet

The Tiger Toilet breaks down waste with worms. Beneath the toilet, and out of view from users, lives a cluster of tiger worms. These critters eat organic waste—including poop. As the worms digest waste, harmful germs are removed. In the end, all that’s left is a mix of water, carbon dioxide, and some harmless worm poop that can be used as fertilizer.

Composting Toilet

Other new toilets turn waste into fertilizer by using heat. Here’s how it works: Human waste is kept in a container attached to the toilet. The temperature inside the container is very high. This high heat, along with oxygen, makes certain bacteria grow—bacteria that naturally break down waste over time. Eventually, what’s left can be used as fertilizer in gardens and backyards. But be careful: Not all composting toilets produce fertilizer that is safe to use for growing food.

Composting Toilet

Other new toilets turn waste into fertilizer by using heat. Here’s how it works: Human waste is kept in a container attached to the toilet. The temperature inside the container is very high. This high heat, along with oxygen, makes certain bacteria grow—bacteria that naturally break down waste over time. Eventually, what’s left can be used as fertilizer in gardens and backyards. But be careful: Not all composting toilets produce fertilizer that is safe to use for growing food.

This article was originally published in the May/June 2020 issue.

This article was originally published in the May/June 2020 issue.

The Nano Membrane and the Tiger Toilet were both developed for the global Rethink the Toilet Challenge, sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The challenge was designed to encourage innovators to come up with creative ways to solve the world’s sanitation crisis.

The Nano Membrane and the Tiger Toilet were both developed for the global Rethink the Toilet Challenge, sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The challenge was designed to encourage innovators to come up with creative ways to solve the world’s sanitation crisis.

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Can't-Miss Teaching Extras

Now that students know more about the history of the modern sewer system, keep the bathroom-based learning going with this history of toilet paper from Wonderopolis. (These days, it could give them some ideas for alternatives too!)

Help students visualize how a waterless toilet like the one mentioned in “Toilets of the Future” works with this fascinating video from TechInsider

Discuss this interactive map that shows how access to improved sanitation around the world increased between 1990 and 2015.

More About the Story

Skills

vocabulary, main idea, cause and effect, descriptive details, supporting details, compare and contrast, author’s craft, explanatory writing

Complexity Factors

Purpose

The first text describes a human-waste crisis in 19th-century London. The second describes three kinds of toilets that could be used in areas without sewer systems.

Structure

The first article shifts between tenses, first inviting the reader into a you-are-there scenario. It also shifts between narrative and explanatory passages. The second text is explanatory.

Language

The articles include some challenging vocabulary (e.g. putrid, epidemics, innovative), as well as metaphors and onomatopoeia. 

Knowledge Demands 

The texts mention London, England; ancient Rome; cholera; cubic meters; and climate change.

Step-by-Step Lesson Plan

1. Preparing to Read

Preview Text Features and Vocabulary (15 minutes)

  • Have students read the headlines and subheads of each article. Ask: Why do you think human waste is referred to as “a deadly health crisis” and “one of the world’s most serious problems”? Look at the feature’s other photos and captions together.
  • Ask a student to read aloud the Up Close box on page 10.
  • Distribute the vocabulary Skill Builder to preview domain-specific words having to do with sanitation issues. Highlighted words: intricate, fertilizer, scorching, putrid, epidemics, microscopic, sewage, sanitation, poverty, organic

2. Close Reading

Read and Unpack the Text (45 minutes)

Read the articles as a class or in small groups. Then have groups discuss or write their answers to the close-reading and critical-thinking questions.

Close-Reading Questions

  • Based on the first article, what was the Great Stink? Where and when did the Great Stink occur? (main idea) The Great Stink refers to the terrible smell that occurred because of people dumping human waste in the Thames River. The Great Stink occurred in London in 1858.
  • According to the section “The Problem of Poop,” why did the cesspool system of dealing with poop stop working? What did people begin to do with the waste from their cesspools? (cause and effect) In the 19th century, London’s population more than doubled. Soon there was too much night soil (poop) to collect and not enough farmers who wanted it for fertilizer. So people emptied their cesspools into the city’s sewers, which were not designed for human waste.
  • Reread “A Whiff on the Wind.” What details does the author use to help you understand how bad the smell was? (descriptive details) The author says that “grown men and women fainted in the streets. People miles away threw up after catching a whiff on the wind. Government leaders . . . fled with tears streaming from their eyes.”
  • According to “A Whiff on the Wind,” why was the Thames water deadly? (supporting details) Poop contains germs that can cause many diseases, including cholera. The poop-filled Thames was London’s main source of drinking water. People had been drinking poison.
  • Reread “The Problem of Poop” and “Something Had to Be Done.” Compare and contrast the new sewers with the old sewers. (compare and contrast) The old sewers had not been designed for human waste. They ran into the river. The new sewers, on the other hand, were designed to get rid of human waste. They ran underground alongside the river, taking waste out past the city and away from where people lived.
  • According to “A New Crisis,” what pressures have caused the original sewers in many cities to leak, break, clog, and overflow? (cause and effect) Since the 1800s, the population of many cities has grown tremendously. Climate change has caused heavier storms that overload pipes with rainwater. The original sewers have too much to handle.
  • The first paragraph of “Toilets of the Future” includes a series of questions: “But what if your home didn’t have a toilet? What if no homes in your town had one? Where would all that waste go?” Why do you think the author chose include these questions? (author’s craft) This series of rhetorical questions helps readers put themselves in the shoes of people who don’t have a toilet in their home; a major point of the article is that many places around the world do not have safe ways to get rid of human waste.
  • Why might the waterless toilets described in the article be a better solution to getting rid of human waste than building more regular toilets and sewers? (main idea) Sewer systems require a lot of money to build and water to work. Many developing countries don’t have enough money or water to build one, so an inexpensive waterless alternative is an advantage.

Critical-Thinking Question

  • Why is it important to safely get rid of human waste? Answer using details from both articles. (synthesizing) It is important to safely get rid of human waste because otherwise it ends up in food and water sources. Many people die each year from diseases related to poor sanitation. Millions of others get sick. The failure to safely get rid of human waste can even cause a health crisis, like that caused by the Great Stink.
  • How did the Great Stink and the world’s current sanitation challenges described in the second article inspire important changes? (synthesizing) In both cases, people have come up with creative solutions to the problem at hand. In 1858, the Great Stink motivated people to build new sewers running alongside the river rather than into it. The current challenges have caused people to invent innovative waterless toilets: the self-powering toilet, the worm toilet, and the composting toilet.

3. Skill Building

Featured Skill: Synthesizing

Differentiate and Customize
For Struggling Readers

Gather students in a small group and read the story aloud with them or play our audio version. Pause at the end of each section and ask students to point out details about what London was like during the Great Stink, creating a list together. They can use the list to write a paragraph describing the city as if they were London residents in 1858.

For Advanced Readers

Ask students to explore other examples of how necessity has caused people to create important new inventions. Prompt them to think about transportation, health care, or other areas and find out what motivated important innovations.

For ELL Students

Listen to the lower-Lexile audio version of the article with students. Afterward, work with students to orally summarize the many problems London faced during the Great Stink and what the solution was to this sanitary crisis.

For Small Groups

Have students work in groups to research sewers and toilets throughout world history. Ask them to make a “Sanitation Timeline,” starting with the sewers in ancient South Asian cities and ancient Rome described in the first article and ending with the “toilets of the future” described in the second article.

Text-to-Speech