Freedom or Death

Before dawn on May 13, 1862, a ship called the Planter steamed through the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.

The mood on the water was uneasy that night. For more than a year, a terrible war had been raging in the United States—the Civil War between the states of the North and the South. Southern ships filled Charleston harbor, guarded by armed soldiers. Just beyond the harbor, Northern ships were waiting with loaded cannons, prepared to destroy any Southern ship that dared approach.

The Planter carried guns and ammunition for the Southern army, and the Southern harbor guards assumed it was making an early-morning delivery. The guards at each checkpoint recognized Captain C. J. Relyea (rel-YAY) in his familiar gold-trimmed jacket and wide-brimmed straw hat, which was tilted low over his face. The captain waved as he approached each of five checkpoints and gave the proper signal with the ship’s whistle—three long, shrill toots followed by one hiss. One by one, the guards let the Planter pass.

Suddenly, it was clear that something was very wrong. The guards at the last checkpoint watched in astonishment as the Planter picked up speed and headed out to sea. What was Captain Relyea doing? Why would he be heading directly into the path of the Northern ships, which would surely blast the Planter to pieces?

In fact, it was not Captain Relyea at the wheel of the Planter that morning. The man in charge was Robert Smalls, a 23-year-old enslaved man. Huddled in the damp hold of the ship were Robert’s wife, Hannah, and their children.

Robert was leading a mission of extraordinary daring. Within moments, he and his family would be free—or they would be dead.

In the early morning of May 13, 1862, a ship called the Planter steamed through the harbor near Charleston, South Carolina.

The mood was uneasy that night. For more than a year, a terrible war had been raging in the United States—the Civil War between the states of the North and the South. Southern ships filled Charleston harbor. They were guarded by armed soldiers. Just beyond the harbor, Northern ships were waiting, prepared to destroy any Southern ship that dared come near.

The Planter carried weapons for the Southern army. The Southern harbor guards thought it was making an early-morning delivery. The guards at the checkpoints recognized Captain C. J. Relyea (rel-YAY). He was wearing his familiar jacket and wide straw hat, which was tilted low over his face. The captain waved and gave the correct signal with the ship’s whistle at each of five checkpoints. Each guard let the Planter pass.

Suddenly, it was clear that something was wrong. The guards at the last checkpoint watched in shock as the Planter sped up and headed out to sea. What was Captain Relyea doing? Why would he be heading into the path of the Northern ships? They would surely attack the Planter!

In fact, it was not Captain Relyea at the wheel of the Planter that morning. The man in charge was Robert Smalls, a 23-year-old enslaved man. Also on the ship were Robert’s wife, Hannah, and their children.

Robert was leading a daring mission. Within moments, he and his family would be free—or they would be dead.

In many ways, Robert had been preparing for this moment since he was a boy. His mother, Lydia Polite, was one of dozens of people enslaved by the family of Henry McKee of Beaufort, South Carolina. Lydia worked in the McKees’ home, helping to care for the McKee children. She lived with her son in a shack behind the family’s home.

Lydia made sure that Robert fully understood what it meant to be enslaved. She told him about the millions of enslaved people who worked on cotton and tobacco plantations throughout the South—how they worked from dawn until dusk without rest, how they were cruelly whipped for slowing down or asking for a drink of water.

She sometimes took Robert to the Beaufort town square, where auctions of enslaved people were held. “Look around,” she’d say, pointing to the men, women, and children lined up on a wooden stage, for sale to the highest bidder. Interested buyers checked the enslaved people’s teeth and feet as if they were horses. 

One day, Robert watched as a young boy was inspected for purchase. Once he was sold, he would probably never see his family again.

“Thank goodness that’s not you,” Robert’s mother whispered.

Robert understood that as an enslaved man, he would never have any say over his own life. Shameful U.S. laws didn’t even recognize him as a person. He was considered a piece of property, like a farm tool in the McKees’ barn or Mr. McKee’s favorite chair.

Robert dreamed of running away to the Northern states, where slavery was banned. He’d heard about freedom seekers who’d made the terrifying journey, hiding in forests and caves, dodging the people and bloodhounds trying to catch them.

But for every enslaved person who managed to escape, hundreds more died or were captured and brutally punished. As long as the McKees were alive, Robert and his mom would have food and a place to live together. Running away seemed like too big of a risk—at least for now. 

In many ways, Robert had been preparing for this moment since he was a boy. His mother, Lydia Polite, was one of the people enslaved by the family of Henry McKee. Lydia worked in the McKees’ home in Beaufort, South Carolina. She helped to care for the McKee children. She lived with her son in a shack behind the family’s home.

Lydia made sure that Robert fully understood what it meant to be enslaved. She told him about the millions of enslaved people who worked on cotton and tobacco plantations throughout the South. She told him how they worked all day without rest. How they were cruelly whipped for slowing down or asking for a drink of water.

She sometimes took Robert to the Beaufort town square. That’s where auctions of enslaved people took place. “Look around,” she’d say, pointing to the men, women, and children lined up on a stage. They were for sale to the person who would pay the most. Interested buyers checked the enslaved people’s teeth and feet as if they were horses.

One day, Robert watched as a young boy was checked before he was purchased. Once he was sold, he would probably never see his family again.

“Thank goodness that’s not you,” Robert’s mother whispered.

Robert understood that as an enslaved man, he would never have any say over his own life. Shameful U.S. laws didn’t even see him as a person. He was considered a piece of property, like a tool in the McKees’ barn or Mr. McKee’s favorite chair.

Robert dreamed of running away to the Northern states, where slavery was banned. He’d heard about people who’d made the terrifying journey. They hid in forests and caves, avoiding the people and bloodhounds trying to catch them.

But for every enslaved person who escaped, hundreds more died or were captured and brutally punished. As long as the McKees were alive, Robert and his mom would have food and a place to live together. Running away seemed like too big of a risk—for now.

So Robert tried to make the most of his life, pursuing whatever opportunities he could find. When he was 12, he was sent to Charleston to work. It was common for enslavers to hire out the people they enslaved; any money Robert earned legally belonged to Mr. McKee.

But Robert and Mr. McKee struck a deal: Robert could keep $1 of his earnings every week, a fraction of what he made. The rest he would pay to Mr. McKee.

Charleston was a bustling city where enslaved people worked alongside White people and free Black people. Robert worked constantly, eventually landing a job on the Planter, a steamboat that carried cotton up and down the South Carolina coast. He impressed the owner and was taught to pilot the ship.

Robert also fell in love with a lively woman named Hannah Jones, who was also enslaved and worked as a hotel maid. Enslaved people could not legally marry, but Mr. McKee and Hannah’s enslaver allowed the couple to live together. Soon Robert and Hannah had a daughter and a son.

The family was happy. But when Robert looked at his children, he was haunted by the memory of the auction block in Beaufort and the little boy who had been sold away from his family. By law, Robert and Hannah’s children did not belong to them but to Hannah’s enslaver. They too could be taken away at any time.

So Robert tried to make the most of his life. He took the opportunities he could find. When he was 12, he was sent to Charleston to work. It was common for enslavers to hire out the people they enslaved. Any money Robert earned legally belonged to Mr. McKee.

But Robert and Mr. McKee made a deal. Robert could keep a small amount of what he made. The rest he would pay to Mr. McKee.

Charleston was a busy city where enslaved people worked next to White people and free Black people. Robert worked all the time. After a while, he got a job on the Planter, a steamboat that carried cotton. He impressed the owner and was taught to pilot the ship.

Robert also fell in love with a woman named Hannah Jones. She was also enslaved. She worked as a hotel maid. Enslaved people could not legally marry. But Mr. McKee and Hannah’s enslaver allowed the couple to live together. Soon Robert and Hannah had a daughter and a son.

The family was happy. But when Robert looked at his children, he was haunted by the memory of the auction in Beaufort. 

He remembered the little boy who had been sold away from his family. The law said that Robert and Hannah’s children did not belong to them. They belonged to Hannah’s enslaver. They too could be taken away at
any time.

Meanwhile, slavery was continuing to tear the country apart. Many believed President Abraham Lincoln planned to abolish slavery throughout the entire U.S. The Southern states refused to allow that to happen. By February 1861, leaders from seven Southern states had announced that they would split off from the rest of the country rather than give up the cruel practice of slavery. Just weeks later, on April 12, Southern soldiers attacked a military base in Charleston called Fort Sumter, near the area where Robert was working. With those shots, the Civil War began.

The Civil War turned life upside down in America, and Charleston was at the very heart of the fighting. Southern commanders took over the Planter and turned it into a supply ship.

Robert and several other Black crew members were forced to fight against the U.S. government, against President Lincoln, and against those who wanted to end slavery.

To Robert, this was intolerable. He longed to free himself and his family from slavery. So he decided to take the chance and risk everything for freedom.

Meanwhile, slavery was continuing to tear the country apart. Many believed President Abraham Lincoln planned to abolish slavery throughout the entire U.S. The Southern states refused to let that happen. By February 1861, leaders from seven Southern states had said that they would split off from the rest of the country rather than stop the cruel practice of slavery. Just weeks later, Southern soldiers attacked a military base in Charleston. It was called Fort Sumter. It was near the area where Robert was working. With those shots, the Civil War began.

The Civil War changed life in America. Charleston was at the center of the fighting. The Southern army took over the Planter. It was turned into a supply ship. Robert and other Black crew members were made to fight against the U.S. government and against those who wanted to end slavery.

To Robert, this was intolerable. He wanted to free himself and his family from slavery. So he decided to risk everything for freedom.

Robert made a plan: He would pilot the Planter and turn it over to the Northern ships just outside the harbor. The Southern states would consider this not only an act of stealing but of outright treason. If he was caught, he and his crew would be put to death. They could also be shot by Southern ships during the escape or blasted to pieces by Northern ships before they could surrender.

But Robert was determined. And on May 13, 1862, after weeks of careful plotting, he and his crew put the plan in motion. Captain Relyea had gone to shore for the night, leaving Robert in charge of the Planter. Robert waited until the quiet predawn hours, then ordered his crew to fire up the ship. They moved stealthily through the harbor, stopping first at a dock where Hannah and the children were hiding. If their plan worked, the entire family would be free. If it failed, Hannah had said, it would be better that they die together.

Next, Robert put on Captain Relyea’s hat and jacket, hoping to fool the guards at each checkpoint. It worked—until the Planter raced out of the harbor. At any second, the Southern cannons could bombard the Planter. Just one cannon ball would smash it into splinters. But soon it was too late. The Planter was out of range and under the protection of the Northern ships. The Northern commander was astonished when he met the Planter’s crew: all enslaved people. 

Except they weren’t enslaved anymore. Robert, his family, and the crew were free.

Robert made a plan: He would drive the Planter and give it to the Northern ships outside the harbor. To the Southern states, this would not be just an act of stealing. It would be treason. If he was caught, he and his crew would be put to death. They could also be killed by Southern ships during the escape or by Northern ships before they could surrender.

But Robert was determined. And on May 13, 1862, after weeks of planning, he and his crew took action. Captain Relyea had gone to shore for the night, leaving Robert in charge of the Planter. Robert waited until the quiet time before sunrise, then told his crew to start the ship. They moved stealthily through the harbor. They stopped first where Hannah and the children were hiding. If their plan worked, the entire family would be free. If it failed, Hannah had said, it would be better that they die together.

Next, Robert put on Captain Relyea’s hat and jacket. He hoped to fool the guards at each checkpoint. It worked—until the Planter raced out of the harbor. At any second, the Southern cannons could shoot the Planter. Just one shot could destroy it. But soon it was too late. The Planter was too far away and safely with the Northern ships. The Northern soldiers’ leader was shocked when he learned the Planter’s crew was all enslaved people. 

Except they weren’t enslaved anymore. Robert, his family, and the crew were free.

Robert became an instant hero. The ship, loaded with guns and ammunition, was a prize for the North. Newspapers celebrated the mission, and Robert met President Lincoln. Northern commanders, impressed with Robert’s skills, hired him to lead secret naval missions.

The Civil War raged for three more bloody years. More than 620,000 soldiers died. But the United States survived as a nation. And in 1865, slavery was finally made illegal throughout the land.

After the war, Robert and his family returned to Beaufort. Robert ran successful businesses and was elected to the U.S. Congress. He bought the McKees’ grand house, which the McKee family could no longer afford. When Mr. McKee died, Robert invited Mrs. McKee—then in her 50s—to live with him. He took care of his former enslaver until she died.

Even as a respected businessman and politician, Robert faced many hardships. There was great prejudice against Black Americans, especially those who had sought freedom. Yet throughout his life, he remained a strong voice for his people. “All they need,” he famously said, “is an equal chance in the battle of life.” 

Robert quickly became a hero. The ship and its weapons were a prize for the North. Newspapers celebrated the mission. Robert met President Lincoln. Northern military leaders hired Robert to lead secret missions.

The Civil War raged for three more years. More than 620,000 soldiers died. But the United States survived as a nation. And in 1865, slavery was finally made illegal throughout the land.

After the war, Robert and his family went back to Beaufort. Robert ran businesses and was elected to the U.S. Congress. 

He bought the McKees’ house, which the McKee family could no longer afford. When Mr. McKee died, Robert invited Mrs. McKee to live with him. He took care of his former enslaver until she died.

Even as a respected man, Robert faced many hardships. There was great prejudice against Black Americans, especially those who had sought freedom. Yet Smalls always remained a strong voice for his people. “All they need,” he said, “is an equal chance in the battle of life.”